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196 Part II . The SUSE System You should then find that you have no choice of resolution and you can test and save the configuration. You should then be able to start the X server with the command startx to check that everything is working. The easiest way to set the vga parameter at boot time is to press the spacebar as soon as the SUSE boot screen displays. This suspends the boot process, enabling you to specify additional boot parameters at the bottom of the boot screen. Table 8-1 lists common resolutions with the relevant vga parameter codes. Table 8-1 Framebuffer vga= Parameters Color Depth Resolution 640 480 800 600 1,024 768 1,280 1,024 32,768 (15-bit) 784 787 790 793 65,536 (16-bit) 785 788 791 794 16.7 million (24-bit) 786 789 792 795 256 (8-bit) 769 771 773 775 When you are sure that the configuration works, you can set the vga=parameter in the file /boot/grub/menu.lstso that it will take effect at the next boot. You should make this change in the default configuration, so you need to edit the first instance of vga= in that file. Note that if you have configured framebuffer graphics, they simply will not work unless the system is booted with the correct vga= parameter. Accessing Framebuffer Graphics after Installation Because SUSE s installer automatically starts the X Window system in graphical mode, you may believe that you ve correctly specified your graphics hardware during installation. Unfortunately, you may then find that X (and sax2) will not start or execute correctly on your system. This is especially common when installing SUSE on laptops, which frequently use custom, low-power versions of well-known graphics chips. To start sax2using framebuffer graphics, use the following command: sax2 -m 0=fbdev If this doesn t work, you can use the following command to tell sax2 to experiment with various graphics modes until it finds one that works correctly:
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Chapter 8 . The X Window System 195 Figure 8-2: sax2 selecting resolution Similarly, the graphics card is also typically detected automatically. However, you have the option to set it manually, either specifically by name (this should be unnecessary because typically sax2is capable of detecting it automatically) or generically (which may be necessary if the card is really unsupported). Framebuffer Graphics Any VESA2-compliant graphics adapter is capable of providing framebuffer graphics. Framebuffer graphics provide an abstraction layer for the graphics hardware in your computer system and provide an easy way for X to interact with and control your graphics hardware. If nothing else works, this is your best chance of getting graphics configured, but may not take advantage of any specialized features of your hardware. If you need to use framebuffer graphics, you can specify a graphical resolution at boot time through a boot parameter, such as vga=791, which sets the resolution to 1,024 768 at 16-bit color depth (a common and reasonably safe option). Having booted with this boot parameter, you can then run sax2and force the graphics mode to be framebuffer by using the command line: sax2 m 0=fbdev
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194 Part II . The SUSE System Note Note that what we are talking about here is the resolution at which the sax2 tool itself displays, not the eventual resolutions that we are going to configure. Occasionally it may be necessary to run sax2 with the option -m, which allows it to choose an appropriate module to run with using a command like this: sax2 -m 0=s3virge The available modules can be found by listing the directory /usr/X11R6/lib/ modules/drivers/. When sax2starts, you will see something like Figure 8-1. In general, sax2is able to detect your monitor and check its capabilities against its database; if not, you can use the monitor section to set the monitor type (in the worst case you may need to set the monitor s capabilities manually based on the frequency and resolution that its documentation tells you that it is capable of). Figure 8-2 shows the screen that sax2displays to let you specify the graphics resolution that your monitor is capable of. Figure 8-1: sax2 main screen
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Chapter 8 . The X Window System 193 Getting Hardware Information In most cases, the hardware will be automatically detected. If necessary, you may have to refer to your monitor s manual to check its capabilities. To get the relevant information from the system, the command hwinfo –monitor may be useful for getting information about the monitor, while any of the following commands may be useful for getting information about the graphics card: lspci v sax2 -p hwinfo –gfxcard Using sax2 To configure or reconfigure X on SUSE, you can use SUSE s sax2tool. It is best (but not essential) to switch first to runlevel 3, so type as root: init 3 Then, again as root, issue the command sax2 The sax2tool then starts its own graphical environment that offers you choices for configuring the graphics, and from here on, everything should be simple. Certain problems can occur, however. In particular, it is possible that limitations of the graphics card or monitor may prevent sax2itself from displaying. If this happens, you should look into the various options that sax2offers. Type the following: sax2 –? This shows you a list of options for the sax2command. The most useful options if sax2is not displaying properly are -land -V. The command sax2-l(or sax2 –lowres) runs sax2in low resolution mode (640 480). This is useful if your monitor is not being correctly detected, which leads to a wrong resolution or frequency being sent to it as sax2tries to start. Use this option if you see only a blank screen when sax2starts. The -Voption allows you to choose the resolution and frequency at which sax2runs. So for example sax2 -V0:1024×768@85 runs sax2at a resolution of 1,024 768 and a frequency of 85 Hz. So if sax2is not displaying when you run it without options, you can run it at a resolution and frequency that you know your hardware can handle.
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192 Part II . The SUSE System Window Managers and Desktops In the context of the X Window system, window managers manage the creation and manip- ulation of the windows created by various applications. Desktop environments such as GNOME and KDE go one step further each includes a window manager but adds a variety of software that extends its support for graphical interaction between applications. As men- tioned previously, desktop environments provide capabilities such as file managers, which support graphical browsing of files and directories and also support capabilities such as drag and drop, where dragging a file s icon onto an application s icon launches the applica- tion and automatically opens a specified file, or where clicking a file in a file manager launches the correct application and opens the specified file, and so on. Many hardcore Linux users prefer simply using a window manager because window managers typically consume fewer system resources than desktop environments. One of the core benefits of Linux is that you can use whatever you want to do your work, and switching between using a window manager and desktop is easy, as explained later in this chapter. Both KDE and GNOME are now mature desktop environments. Traditionally, SUSE distributions have offered both, but with a definite bias toward KDE, whereas Red Hat has shown a bias toward GNOME. This may be related to the percentage of the developers of these respective desktop environments that work at these companies. In mid-2003, Novell acquired Ximian (the commercial company employing many GNOME developers). Novell s stated position is that both KDE and GNOME will continue to be supported in the future; however, it seems at least likely that when the next desktop version aimed at business users appears, it will be based on Ximian s version of GNOME. Configuring X Traditionally, X configuration was a common, major problem; grown men have been known to weep over it. Such problems are largely a thing of the past, and in almost all cases you will find that the configuration that occurs automatically during the installation gives you a good working setup. The most likely reason why X configuration might fail these days is that you are using a very new graphics adapter that is not natively supported by XFree86 or X.org. Fortunately, even in this case there is usually a workaround, which is to use framebuffer graphics (see the section on this topic later in the chapter).
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Chapter 8 . The X Window System 191 There are a variety of window managers that range from the very minimal, such as TWM and MWM, to the integrated desktop environments, such as KDE and GNOME. Traditionally, a window manager on the X Window system on Unix was not particularly pretty, to say the least; if you log in to your SUSE Linux system and choose TWM as the window manager rather than the default, you will see what we mean. If you choose the installation option Minimal with X11, you get a system with the fvwmwindow manager and the xdmlogin manager. You may want to do this if you are installing SUSE on a server for which you do not need the use of a full-blown desktop but may occasionally need to run a graphical program (such as certain monitoring tools or the Oracle installer, for example). KDE and GNOME Back in 1996, there was a general feeling that the available window managers running on X were sparse and lacking in features compared to the graphical environments available on Windows and the Mac. A primary concern was that X Window system window managers were fine at creating and managing windows and the graphical applications that created them, but did not support the greater ease of use that users of systems such as Microsoft Windows and Mac OS have come to expect. This led to the start of the KDE project. The idea of KDE was to go beyond a window manager that simply handled mouse and keyboard interactions and to create a unified desktop environment for users. In this unified environment, clicking a file in the file manager would launch the correct application, drag and drop would work between compliant applications, all applications would share a common look and feel, and so on. KDE made rapid progress but became involved in controversy because it is based on the Qt toolkit (produced by Trolltech), which was issued under a license that was regarded by many as unacceptable. (Although the source code was open, it did not qualify as a free software license because it did not permit the redistribution of modifications.) Some people also feared that Trolltech could unilaterally change the terms on which it offered the toolkit, thereby derailing the project. The rival GNOME project with similar aims was started shortly afterward, partly in reaction to the controversy over the Qt license. GNOME used the GTK+ toolkit, which was part of the GNU project and licensed under the GNU Library General Public License (LGPL). In due course the controversy surrounding KDE was solved by a change in the license. At first, Trolltech sought to solve the problem by offering a free edition of Qt under a special open source license (the QPL), but controversy continued until Trolltech agreed to release Qt under a dual license (GPL and QPL), a solution that was satisfactory to all parties.
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190 Part II . The SUSE System machine that the applications are running on; however, the network transparency of X provides huge benefits that we shall examine further in this chapter. The common complaints that are often heard about X are the problems of configuration (largely but not entirely a thing of the past), problems with fonts (antialiased display of fonts in all situations took a long time to become available on Linux), lack of direct support for hardware acceleration, and other performance issues. Some of these difficulties are directly related to the fact that implementations of X have to be backward-compatible and standards-compliant. Largely through the efforts of open source operating systems such as Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD, X Window system configuration today is quite easy, rivaling the ease of installing and configuring graphics on any modern operating system. The XFree86 project s generic xf86config utility is quite easy to use but requires some knowledge of your system s graphical capabilities. The X.org project s xorgcfg utility is very similar and has similar information requirements. The vendors that sell and support Linux and BSD distributions have stepped in to make things even easier. Applications such as the sax2 utility developed by SUSE and provided with all SUSE Linux distributions provide a simpler, almost automatic mechanism for configuring and fine-tuning X on a modern Linux system. X Window System Concepts When using X, a user is running a graphical application, say an xterm. The xterm is the client; it communicates with an X server, which does the job of displaying it. There is no requirement that the client and the server must run on the same machine; the client and the server simply need to be able to communicate with each other. In addition, the X server needs to be willing (from a security point of view) to display the output of the client, and the client needs to be started in an environment that includes suitable information about how it will display its output (typically the DISPLAY environment variable). In most simple cases (including cases in which you are explicitly logging in remotely by ssh), you don t need to think about any of this everything just works. Window Managers The X server itself knows how to display the output of a program, but it does not know how to manage the different programs that it is displaying that is the job of the window manager. The window manager looks after the behavior of the application windows, their decorations, the look and feel of their borders and control widgets (such as close and maximize buttons), the way they interact with the mouse and keyboard, and so on.
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8 CHAPTER The X Window System …. The graphical interface that comes with Linux is provided by an implementation of the X Window system. The X Window system is a set of protocols and standards for a cross- platform, network-transparent graphics display system. On Linux, the implementation chosen has traditionally been that from the XFree86 project. Recent arguments about licensing have resulted in the major Linux distributors switching from XFree86 to the X.org project from www.x.org. In the case of SUSE, this change was made with the release of the 9.2 version. However, this makes no difference to the principles discussed here. Note Historically, the original developers of the X Window system have been very insistent about the fact that it is a window system named X, and thus should not simply be referred to as X. In this book, we refer to the X Window system as X because it is more convenient and common to do so. Computer history fans should note that the designation X originally came from the fact that the project that inspired the X Window system was the W Window system from Stanford University X is simply the next letter of the alphabet. The big difference between X and (for example) the graphics display systems found in Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X is that X is inherently network-transparent and is designed from the ground up as a client-server system. That means that, using X, you can run a graphical program in one place and display its output somewhere else. This is a capability for which you need to pay for special add-ons in the Windows world, but that is built into Linux. The somewhere else where you will be displaying the graphical output can be any platform for which an X server implementation is available, which includes virtually any operating system capable of TCP/IP networking and running a graphical display. In a typical Linux desktop situation, you will of course be running the display on the same In This Chapter X Window system concepts Configuring X The KDE desktop The GNOME desktop Using window managers Building X applications ….
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188 Part II . The SUSE System name of the machine that the message originated from (in this case, bible). The next entry is usually the process that actually created the log entry (in this case the ssh daemon). The number you see next to the process name is the process number, followed by the message itself. The message you see in this example is self-explanatory, saying that there was an authentication error. The PAM: entry is something you will see with most authentication errors in Linux as PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules) is used to take a username and password for a process and decide if this user with the password they have entered is actually allowed to log in to the system. This next example is an informational message from the kernel after a kernel driver has been loaded: May 27 22:19:22 bible kernel: IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling driver This means that the driver that deals with tunneling IPv6 traffic over IPv4 has been loaded successfully. So here you have seen two extremes of what you might find in a log file. The latter example is a general informational message telling you all is fine. The other is a bit more serious, telling you that someone attempted to log in to the system but failed because they provided the wrong authentication information (wrong username or password). Log files are there to help you in your running of your Linux system. You have to be vigilant in your efforts to keep the system running nicely, and log files help you with this. Have you checked your logs recently? …
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Chapter 7 . Logging 187 Figure 7-2: Month output in webalizer We will not talk about the configuration of webalizer here, because the configuration file /etc/webalizer.conf is extremely well documented, and the default setting suits 99 percent of people who need to analyze their web traffic. Reading Log Files This chapter has covered what logging on a SUSE Linux system means and what you can do with the messages that are generated both by the kernel and processes that you run. However, reading log files is a skill in itself. There is no good way to teach people how to read log files; rather, it is something that comes with experience. We will give you our short rundown of common entries you will find in /var/log/messages and explain how to interpret them to help you on your way. The following line is an example of a log entry indicating an SSH login failure: May 27 23:23:35 bible sshd[5019]: error: PAM: Authentication failure From this example, you can see certain things about log entries that are generic to all of them. The first entry is the date and time this entry was created, with the host
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